Constructing Gender
How can a piece of cloth hold so much significance and controversy within its threads? Throughout history, the hijab has liberated and oppressed, been banned and made mandatory. While only women wear the hijab, it has become one of the most prominent and visible signs of Islam. Around the world, Muslim women are often called to defend their decision to either wear or not wear the veil.

How is gender identity reconstructed in times of social or political unrest? How does the meaning of the veil change during times of cultural upheaval? Over the past decade, Iraqi women have been reinterpreting their gender identity and the meaning of the veil within both their home country and in their new countries of exile.  For Iraqi refugees, the veil becomes a tool where gender identity can be reimagined through political, religious, and social layers. It can allow women to coexist in both the public and private space and give a sense of protection during times of political and social unrest. The migratory process of displacement may influence one’s veiling practices or gender identity, as these Iraqi women are made especially vulnerable as refugees and females.

In Egypt, many female Iraqi refugees wear the hijab based on situational need. This means while many Iraqi women have previously chosen to wear the hijab for religious reasons, others only started wearing the hijab after moving to Egypt, or only when they feel threatened. Many spoke of their vulnerability as both a refugee and a female in a foreign country. The hijab can allow the wearer to hide aspects of their public identity so as to not draw any unwanted attention. Therefore, the veil can be seen as a site where identity has been politicized and reimagined, especially during times of unrest like after the Iraq war in 2003, when conservative Islamic militias controlled and threatened women in the public sphere, and now in Egypt after the Arab Spring. In this sense, aspects of one's gender identity can be reinterpreted by both the viewer and the wearer.

Only women are called to make the decision to either veil or not veil. This choice can affect how others perceive them and how they perceive themselves. While some of the Iraqi women interviewed argued that their gender identity remained the same, regardless of what they wore, others spoke of how they felt like different people while veiling in public.

How one is viewed and who they are viewed by involves power dynamics and gender relations. In Egypt, Iraqi women are often assigned the role of the object of the gaze:

 “Say to the believing men that they should lower their gaze and guard their modesty: that will make for greater purity for them: And Allah is well acquainted with all that they do. And say to the believing women that they should lower their gaze and guard their modesty; that they should not display their beauty and ornaments except what (must orMaisarily) appear thereof …” 24:31

This Quranic verse calls for men to avert their gaze so as to not see women as objects of desire. It also calls on women to appear modest so as to not attract unwanted attention. In the sexual politics of looking, men can assert dominance through the privileged position of the looker, while women are therefore objectified as the objects of the gaze.

Gender and Unrest: Iraq
Following the American invasion of Iraq and the fall of Saddam Hussein, there was complete lawlessness and anarchy. In 2006, a civil war began between the Sunni and Shia Muslims, which led to multiple kidnappings, threats, and murders. This created social and political unrest during the transition period where there was not any form of stable government. Militias and terrorist organizations often harassed women, especially if they did not wear a veil.

Following the invasion, Jamila, a twenty-seven year old Iraqi woman, decided to wear the hijab when in public for protective purposes: “My friend showed up to school one day wearing a hijab. I was in shock because my friend had informed me in the past that she did not believe in wearing the hijab for religious purposes. My friend and I had hired a private driver to take us to school and back safely. One day, the driver was stopped in the middle of the road by two cars and threatened. The men said they would kill him if he continued to drive female passengers who did not cover their heads. The driver later begged us to wear the hijab for safety. I do not believe that wearing the hijab makes one a Muslim, but I began wearing it to avoid harassment. I would remove it once I got inside my school. When I moved to Egypt, I stopped wearing it altogether.”

Her husband Ghalib forbids her to wear the veil because “nothing in Islam dictates that a woman should wear a hijab. It is a part of a political agenda that has entered the religious realm recently. The policy of wearing the hijab—the very idea of it—has not entered my country until recently. No one wore it in the 1960s-1980s. After 1991, suddenly the hijab was everywhere. Perhaps it has to do with Iran’s influence, but I do not know.” At first, I thought he meant “prefer”. Yet Ghalib clarified that he “refuses” it.

Both Jamila and Ghalib have a shared stance on the hijab. How would gender and marital relations change if they disagreed? Who makes the final decision about whether or not she wears the hijab? Even though these two both agree on the issue, for many women the decision is made for them. Political sentiments may affect one’s decision to veil. With the turbulent political atmosphere in the Middle East, many refugees are hyper-aware of their vulnerability, and seek to limit public exposure.  

Gender and Unrest: Egypt
According to many of the Iraqi refugees we interviewed, post-Revolutionary Egypt is unsettlingly similar to post-war Iraq. After the Arab Spring and the overthrow of Mubarak’s regime, there has been a period of chaos marked by protests against the new government. Yet, tension had existed between the people and their leaders long before the Revolution. While the needs of Egyptians are not being met by their own country, the needs of Iraqis in Egypt are often ignored altogether.

Maisa, an outspoken mother of two, mentioned that she does not like living in Egypt because “Egypt is too controlling when it comes to religion and I do not like the way religion is entering the daily life.” Maisa’s apartment was small, but lively. The sounds of the television hummed in the background, and her husband joined our conversation intermittently. Maisa’s mother lives with Maisa and her family, and she was wearing a loosely knotted hijab in our presence, while Maisa sported a stylish bob. She points to the scarves we wore around our necks, assuming they were hijabs for when we left her home. “I want a free life; in Egypt I am told how to dress. I feel the pressure to wear the hijab or else I get looked at or harassed. I wore the hijab in Iraq, but only after 2006 for protection. In Iraq, I could wear a skirt, but here I am looked at. I feel as if I am limited in public because of how I dress.”

Maisa paused to bring out several skirts to show us. “I have these clothes but I am unable to wear them. The hijab and skirt are not compatible.” For Maisa, wearing the hijab is not her choice. She feels as if it limits her freedom of expression and her identity as a woman. If she is resettled to another country, Maisa says she will take off her hijab.

Her husband, Daoud, supported her decision. “In the 1990s, after the Gulf War, Iraq became very conservative. Previously, Iraqis were very cultured and they travelled all over the world. However, Iraq became comparable to an enclosed community. There was no mobile or Internet until 2003, the start of the US invasion.  People communicated through landlines. Additionally, the mail that was sent would be censored. The situation in Iraq makes me scared. It is getting worse. Egypt reminds me of Iraq. With the Muslim Brotherhood in power, it is leading to the same controlling Islam that divided Iraq.” If Maisa and Daoud had a daughter, they would want her to wear a hijab for protection.

Both men and women we spoke to affirmed that Egypt is more dangerous after the revolution. There has been an increase in violence, a politicization of religion, and disorganized law enforcement. According to Iraqis, there seem to be similar trends currently happening in Egypt that happened in Iraq before they were displaced. During these periods of unrest in both countries, Iraqi women have been forced to consider wearing the hijab for more than just religious and personal reasons. The politics of their environment and the chaos and harassment that ensued have been a factor for many.

Gender Identity Reinterpreted
I focus on the hijab because I believe it has been used as an instrument to construct gender identity and can be reinterpreted in a refugee context. Many women feel especially vulnerable because they are refugees, and choose to wear the hijab in order to not stand out as a foreigner. By doing so, they may be trying to suppress aspects of their identity as an Iraqi during certain periods for safety. For some, this means they are trying to alter how others perceive them, and for others this means they are changing how they see themselves.

For example, identifying as an Arab versus an Iraqi makes it easier for some women to find community in Egypt. Likewise, some women veil in order to not draw attention to the fact that they are Iraqi— even if they still see themselves as Iraqi even while veiled—as a tactic to avoid harassment. The conversations we had with many of the women led me to believe there is a strong political association with the hijab as well. Some women choose to veil during times when the state has failed to protect them—for example, when a government has been overthrown. The culture of the displaced is especially dynamic because it is taking into consideration a group’s traditions and history and how their group identity has changed during the displacement process. When the Iraqis, both as individuals and as a collective group, are uprooted and rerouted, they are forced to reconsider how they identify away from their homeland. Their needs and interactions are different now that they are displaced in Egypt. Due to this, aspects of their culture— including the meaning of the hijab—will also be reinterpreted during the process of displacement.

Gender dynamics in public spaces
The hijab is giving this marginalized group a sense of protection from the sexual politics of looking because it allows them to exist privately within the public sphere. This need to retreat from the public eye exists in order to avoid becoming a target of harassment or discrimination. The hijab cannot ensure protection from harassment, but many women feel as if it acts as a slight deterrent.

Jana is a thirty-two year old woman whose husband has been missing for the past five years. She began to wear the hijab before marriage. “When I wear hijab and abaya, I feel comfortable. Men aren’t looking at me. I am not tempting them. I get more respect.” For Jana, the hijab has both religious and cultural significance.

Sara, another Iraqi refugee, wears the veil to protect herself from the unwanted gaze of men, but does so reluctantly. “It is difficult to work alone in Egypt because I am constantly harassed. I do not believe in wearing a hijab for religious purposes, but must do so for security reasons. In 2005, there was a widespread enforced rule for all girls to wear hijabs [in Iraq]. Now, even though I don’t have to wear one, I do so for security, but also because I feel ashamed to take it off.” Because she has started wearing one, Sara feels as if she has to continue.

Although their reasons were similar, Jana and Sara identify differently with the hijab. Sara’s veil allows her to have multiple identities coexisting within the hijab, because she began wearing the hijab when it was enforced in Iraq and continued to do so in Egypt due to harassment. Her hijab has recreated how she identifies herself; the removal of it may cause her to lose both protection and respect. In contrast, Jana is perhaps able to merge her religious beliefs and situational needs because of her faith. It acts as a tool to protect her from the sexual gaze of men, but she also wears it for God. While some of the women see these two concepts as inherently separate, Jana is able to unite them in her eyes.

Familial Differences and Outlooks on Veiling
During our research, I noticed that many of the older women who wore the hijab reported that they were the first ones to do so in their families. Their mothers and grandmothers never wore the hijab in Iraq. Now in Egypt, the mothers are wearing the hijab and the girls who are coming of age have a choice to either wear it or not. We had an interesting interview with three sisters, of which only the middle sister did not wear the hijab. All three women were accessorized from head to toe, and even the sisters who wore hijabs each styled them differently and matched the hues to their makeup. In their case, generational differences and tradition may be factors to consider, but are not decisive.

When asked about Islam, the oldest sister, Ahlam, said, “It is the most important thing in our life. There are discordances between governmental law and Islamic law, but we often follow the Islamic law more closely. For example, wearing the hijab is not for the government to decide, but in Islam it is mentioned by the Quran. It is a sign of our religion and a protection for the woman.”

Amal, the middle sister, is unveiled. Amal believes that as long as she dresses decently, she will get respect and will not draw attention to herself in public.  In the sexual politics of looking, who is to blame if the female attracts the unwanted gaze of the male? According to Amal, “Both the man and the woman [share responsibility], because the man…should respect her and shouldn’t look at her in the way of wanting her. The woman should wear something decent.”

Protection Culture
The veil is constantly being reinterpreted, and has gained multifaceted meaning following the invasion of Iraq, the fall of Saddam Hussein, and the displacement of millions of Iraqi refugees. Likewise, identity and space were politicized following the Arab Spring. This social unrest has left Iraqi refugees feeling particularly vulnerable. Many women reported becoming more aware of their gender identity as they must consider who they are and who they ought to be in the public sphere. Their status as females has caused many to feel more exposed.

Some women feel as if they have no autonomy because they feel unsafe without a male chaperone. If a woman does not have a male relative available, she will even use a much younger son as a chaperone. The presence of a male deters some of the harassment, according to the women we spoke with. The hijab creates a space for the wearer to exist simultaneously in both the public and private sphere. It allows multiple political, social, and cultural identities to co-exist.

When Rana opened the door to her home in Nasr City, she was not wearing a hijab. She is a fifty year old woman with a tired smile and kind eyes. Women generally do not wear the hijab in private, domestic spaces. Rana was taken aback when she saw that one of our group members was male. She left momentarily and returned wearing a veil. In this instance, the private space of her home had been reconfigured as a public space due to the presence of a foreign male. Her hijab served as a bridge between the public and private spheres.

On a different occasion, with an all-female research team, a group of veiled women in a private residence removed their hijabs. During the end of the night, several people pulled out their cameras in order to document the night. Immediately, many women chose to put on their hijab. If the images are uploaded onto a social media site or the internet, this is considered to be the public sphere. The veil allows the women to be represented publically without feeling threatened or disrespected.

Veiling is tied to culture, politics, and religion— all factors that are subject to change and criticism as society changes. It allows women to expose or conceal aspects of their identities based on the situation. Gender identity, like all other factors, is reimagined as refugees are exposed to new environments and experiences. Veiling is a multifaceted ritual that allows one to exist in multiple public and private spaces. Iraqi women, due to their gender and their refugee status, are especially vulnerable in Egypt. When the state fails to protect them during times of social and political unrest, many Iraqi women have taken it upon themselves to try to take charge of their safety and identity by veiling. They must carefully protect and control how they are viewed and how they identify themselves. The process may be a way to regain a sense of respect or safety when one's gender identity is threatened or disempowered.